Rabies virus in white-nosed coatis (Nasua narica) in Mexico: what do we know so far?

Rabies is a neglected disease that affects all mammals. To determine the appropriate sanitary measures, the schedule of preventive medicine campaigns requires the proper identification of the variants of the virus circulating in the outbreaks, the species involved, and the interspecific and intraspecific virus movements. Urban rabies has been eradicated in developed countries and is being eradicated in some developing countries. In Europe and North America, oral vaccination programs for wildlife have been successful, whereas in Latin America, Asia, and Africa, rabies remains a public health problem due to the habitation of a wide variety of wild animal species that can act as rabies virus reservoirs in their environment. After obtaining recognition from the WHO/PAHO as the first country to eliminate human rabies transmitted by dogs, Mexico faces a new challenge: the control of rabies transmitted by wildlife to humans and domestic animals. In recent years, rabies outbreaks in the white-nosed coati (Nasua narica) have been detected, and it is suspected that the species plays a significant role in maintaining the wild cycle of rabies in the southeast of Mexico. In this study, we discussed cases of rabies in white-nosed coatis that were diagnosed at InDRE (in English: Institute of Epidemiological Diagnosis and Reference; in Spanish: Instituto de Diagnostico y Referencia Epidemiologicos) from 1993 to 2022. This study aimed to determine whether white-nosed coatis might be an emergent rabies reservoir in the country. A total of 13 samples were registered in the database from the Rabies laboratories of Estado de Mexico (n = 1), Jalisco (n = 1), Quintana Roo (n = 5), Sonora (n = 1), and Yucatan (n = 5). Samples from 1993 to 2002 from Estado de Mexico, Jalisco, and Sonora were not characterized because we no longer had any samples available. Nine samples were antigenically and genetically characterized. To date, coatis have not been considered important vectors of the rabies virus. The results from our research indicate that the surveillance of the rabies virus in coatis should be relevant to prevent human cases transmitted by this species.

Rabies Virus Variants Detected from Cougar (Puma concolor) in Mexico 2000-2021.

In 2019, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Pan-American Health Organization (PAHO) recognized Mexico as a country free of human rabies transmitted by dogs. Nevertheless, the sylvatic cycle remains as a public health concern in the country. Although cougars (Puma concolor) are not reservoirs of any rabies virus variant (RVV), these felines could act as vectors at the top of the food chain, and their relationships with other organisms must be considered important for the regulatory effect on their prey's populations. In this study, genetic and antigenic characterization was performed on all cougar rabies cases diagnosed at the Rabies Laboratory Network of the Ministry of Health (RLNMH) in Mexico from 2000 to 2021. Samples from other species, a skunk, a horse (Equus caballus) (attacked by a cougar), and a gray fox (Urocyon cineroargenteus), were included as reference. Rabies cases in cougars were restricted to two Northern states of Mexico (Sonora and Chihuahua). Five out of six samples of cougars were RVV7 (Arizona gray fox RVV) and one from Sonora was RVV1. Interestingly, there is no evidence of RVV1 in dogs in the Northern states since the 1990s but skunk species now harbor this RVV1 in this region of the country.

Public Veterinary Medicine: Public Health Rabies virus variants identified in Nuevo Leon State, Mexico, from 2008 to 2015.

OBJECTIVE: To identify rabies virus variants (RVVs) isolated from bats and terrestrial mammals in Nuevo Leon between 2008 and 2015 and Coahuila in 2006. SAMPLE: RVVs isolated from 15 bats and terrestrial mammals in Nuevo Leon and from a cow (Bos taurus) in Coahuila, along with 46 reference rabies virus sequences. PROCEDURES: Antigenic characterization of the 16 isolates was performed with an indirect fluorescent antibody technique. Genomic sequencing of the nucleoprotein gene in the 16 isolates was performed with a reverse transcription PCR assay. Phylogenetic reconstruction of the 62 sequences was performed by means of Bayesian inference. RESULTS: 9 isolates from bats and 1 isolate from a domestic cat that became infected as a result of contact with a Mexican free-tailed bat all clustered in the lineage associated with Lasiurus spp in the Americas or the lineage associated with Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana. An isolate from a domestic dog was identified as a variant associated with the dog-coyote lineage. The RVV isolated from a fox clustered in an Arizona fox lineage. The 3 RVVs from skunks (Mephitis macroura) were placed in a lineage with variants isolated from spotted skunks (Spilogale putorius). The RVV isolated from the cow was clustered in a lineage associated with foxes in Texas and separate from the lineage for the fox from Nuevo Leon. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results reinforced the need for Mexico to implement rabies surveillance and monitoring programs for bats and wild-living terrestrial carnivores.

Genome Sequence of a Rabies Virus Isolated from a Dog in Chiapas, Mexico, 2013.

Rabies virus (RABV), a member of the genus Lyssavirus, causes encephalitis that is almost always fatal following the onset of clinical signs. Here, we report the complete codifying sequence of an RABV isolated from a dog in Mexico. Molecular data showed that this strain belongs to the Chiapas lineage.

Molecular diversity of rabies viruses associated with bats in Mexico and other countries of the Americas.

Bat rabies and its transmission to humans and other species in Mexico were investigated. Eighty-nine samples obtained from rabid livestock, cats, dogs, and humans in Mexico were studied by antigenic typing and partial sequence analysis. Samples were further compared with enzootic rabies associated with different species of bats in the Americas. Patterns of nucleotide variation allowed the definition of at least 20 monophyletic clusters associated with 9 or more different bat species. Several lineages associated with distinctive antigenic patterns were found in rabies viruses related to rabies in vampire bats in Mexico. Vampire bat rabies virus lineages associated with antigenic variant 3 are widely spread from Mexico to South America, suggesting these lineages as the most likely ancestors of vampire bat rabies and the ones that have been moved by vampire bat populations throughout the Americas. Rabies viruses related to Lasiurus cinereus, Histiotus montanus, and some other not yet identified species of the genus Lasiurus were found circulating in Mexico. Long-range dissemination patterns of rabies are not necessarily associated with migratory bat species, as in the case of rabies in Desmodus rotundus and Histiotus montanus. Human rabies was associated with vampire bat transmission in most cases, and in one case, rabies transmission from free-tailed bats was inferred. The occurrence of rabies spillover from bats to domestic animals was also demonstrated. Genetic typing of rabies viruses allowed us to distinguish trends of disease dissemination and to address, in a preliminary fashion, aspects of the complex evolution of rabies viruses in different host-reservoir species.

Molecular epizootiology of rabies associated with terrestrial carnivores in Mexico.

Epizootiological patterns of rabies are described, using antigenic and genetic analysis of samples obtained from infected domestic and wild mammals in 20 Mexican states during 1976-2002. Two independent origins are suggested for rabies in Mexican carnivores. One group shares ancestry with canine rabies, while the other group appears to share a common origin with bat rabies in North America. More than 12 sublineages were found in rabid dog populations, suggesting at least six major spatio-temporal foci. Coyote rabies was found as independent enzootic foci that probably emerged via spillover from dog rabies, translocated from major foci in the southcentral and western regions of Mexico. One focus of gray fox rabies was widely distributed in northwestern Mexico, overlapping with a focus in the same species in the southwestern United States. A skunk rabies focus distributed in the northcentral Mexican states appears to share a common origin with bat rabies foci in North America, and is a close relative of southcentral skunk and raccoon rabies in the United States. Two other skunk foci share a common ancestor with canine rabies and were distributed in northwest Mexico and Yucatan.

Antigenic diversity and distribution of rabies virus in Mexico.

Rabies remains a public health problem in the Americas because of the great diversity of wild reservoirs that maintain the virus in nature. Here we report the antigenic characterization of 254 rabies viruses isolated from 148 nonreservoir and 106 reservoir hosts collected in 27 states of Mexico. Nine out of 11 antigenic variants previously reported in the United States were detected in Mexico by using the limited panel of monoclonal antibodies donated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Some rabies virus variants were isolated from their natural reservoirs, which were also taxonomically identified. Terrestrial reservoirs included stray dogs with V1, Urocyon cineroargenteus (gray foxes) with V7, and two subspecies of Spilogale putorius (spotted skunks) with different viral variants (V8 and V10). Aerial hosts included Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana and Desmodus rotundus, which harbored V9 and V4 and harbored V11, respectively. All variants, with the exception of V9, were isolated from nonreservoir hosts, while V3, V4, and V5 were not isolated from their natural reservoirs but only from livestock. Rabies virus antigenic typing allowed us to determine rabies reservoirs and their distribution in Mexico, data which will probably improve prevention and control of the illness in humans and in the reservoir hosts.